Board Thread:Fun and games/@comment-28639118-20160131002136/@comment-27721403-20160202141657

in had been at war for more than a year. Relations between the colonies and the mother country had been deteriorating since the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763. The war had plunged the British government deep into debt, and so Parliament enacted a series ofgfmeasures to increase tax revensgue from the colonies. Parliament believed that these acts, such as the Stamp fgfAct of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767, were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep the colonietss in the British Empire.[12]g

Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. Because the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament's authority in the cogfflonies.[13]  The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so by definition anything Parliament did was constitutional.[14]  In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certainfundamental rights that no government—not even Parliament—could violate.[15]  After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all.[16]  Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth,[17]  by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.[18]

Congress convenes
The issue of Parliament's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George III and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent".[19]

Even after fighting in the American Revolutionary War began at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain.[20]  When the Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it.[21]  Although many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, they still professed loyalty to King George, whom they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were to be disappointed: in late 1775, the king rejected Congress's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance" to suppress the rebellion.[22]  A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.[23]

Toward independence
<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">In January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator, Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense was published.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[24]  Paine, who had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[25]  Common Sense introduced no new ideas,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[26]  and probably had little direct effect on Congress's thinking about independence; its importance was in stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[27]  Public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after the publication of Paine's enormously popular pamphlet.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[28] The Assembly Room in Philadelphia's Independence Hall, where the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Although some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency", calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[29]  Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[30]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by thirteen different governments—which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies—and were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[31]  Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[32]  As public sentiment for separation from Great Britain grew, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for independence, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct (or grant permission for) its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[33]  was waged to bring this about.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[34]

Revising instructions
<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identified more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[35]  These "declarations" took a variety of forms. Some were formal, written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[36]  Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as on May 4, when the Rhode Island legislature became the first to declare its independence from Great Britain.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[37]  Many "declarations" were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776, by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare...that George the Third, King of Great Britain...has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[38]  Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 4.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[39]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Jensen.2C_Founding.2C_682_40-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[40]  Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key: if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Jensen.2C_Founding.2C_682_40-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[40]  On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-41" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[41]  In response, on May 10 Congress passed a resolution, which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs" to adopt new governments.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[42]  The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[43]

May 15 preamble
<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">This Day the Congress has passed the most important Resolution, that ever was taken in America. —John Adams, May 15, 1776<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-44" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:9.856px;">[44] <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[45]  Adams's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[46]  Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[47]  Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[48]

Lee's resolution and the final push
<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">On the same day that Congress passed Adams's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[49]  In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three-part resolution to Congress on June 7.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[50]  The motion, which was seconded by John Adams, called on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read: <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[51] <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Lee's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution, while conceding that reconciliation with Great Britain was unlikely, argued that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[52] Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[53]  Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress therefore voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee's resolution for three weeks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[54]  Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence, and the following day the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[55]  In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and on June 18 a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania's delegates to declare independence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[56]  On June 15, the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, which had been governing the province since January 1776, resolved that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country" and had him arrested.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[57]  On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[58]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, when the Continental Congress had adopted Adams's radical May 15 preamble, Maryland's delegates walked out and sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[59]  On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence, but Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-60" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[60]  Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[61]  But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[62] This idealized depiction of (left to right) Franklin, Adams, and Jefferson working on the Declaration (Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, 1900) was widely reprinted.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:9.89632px;">[63] ==Draft and adoption== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">While political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence, a document explaining the decision was being written. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five", consisting ofJohn Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut, to draft a declaration. Because the committee left no minutes, there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded—accounts written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are contradictory and not entirely reliable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-64" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[64]  What is certain is that the committee, after discussing the general outline that the document should follow, decided that Jefferson would write the first draft.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[65]  The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with Jefferson personally.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-digitalhistory_3-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[3]  Considering Congress's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[66]  He then consulted the others, made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-67" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[67] "Declaration House", the boarding house at Market and S. 7th Street where Jefferson wrote the DeclarationJefferson drafted the Declaration on this portable lap desk of his own design.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[68]  For two days Congress methodically edited Jefferson's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ferling_.282000.29.2C_pp._131.E2.80.93137_69-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[69]  Congress removed Jefferson's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies, in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="line-height:1;font-size:11.2px;white-space:nowrap;">[citation needed]  Although Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled" his draft version, the Declaration that was finally produced, according to his biographer John Ferling, was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ferling_.282000.29.2C_pp._131.E2.80.93137_69-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[69]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">On Monday, July 1, having tabled the draft of the declaration, Congress resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and resumed debate on Lee's resolution of independence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-70" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[70]  John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-71" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[71]  John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">After a long day of speeches, a vote was taken. As always, each colony cast a single vote; the delegation for each colony—numbering two to seven members—voted amongst themselves to determine the colony's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation, lacking permission to vote for independence, abstained. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by the Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, who was opposed to Lee's resolution but desirous of unanimity, moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-72" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[72]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three-to-two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again, since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they would be allowed to do so by the New York Provincial Congress a week later.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-73" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[73]  The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-74" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[74]  In a now-famous letter written to his wife on the following day, John Adams predicted that July 2 would become a great American holiday.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-75" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[75]  Adams thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans—including himself—would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date that the announcement of that act was finalized.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-76" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[76]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, Congress made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text, most notably a passage critical of the slave trade, changes that Jefferson resented.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MaierAmerican_77-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[77]  On July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication. The opening of the original printing of the Declaration, printed on July 4, 1776 under Jefferson's supervision. The engrossed copy (shown at the top of this article) was made later. Note the opening lines of the two versions differ.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-journals.psu.edu_78-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:9.89632px;">[78]  ==Annotated text of the engrossed Declaration== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The Declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: Introduction, the Preamble, the Indictment of George III, the Denunciation of the British people, and the Conclusion.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lucas_79-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[79]

Influences and legal status
English political philosopher John Locke (1632–1704)<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825: <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-81" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[81] <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Jefferson's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-82" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[82]  They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-83" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[83]  During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-84" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[84]  The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[85]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-86" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[86]  The English political theorist John Locke, whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived",<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-87" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[87] is usually cited as one of the primary influences. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote that "Most Americans had absorbed Locke's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke's second treatise on government."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-88" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[88]  The extent of Locke's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey declared in 1937, as he argued for the dominant influence of the Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles" in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness" instead of "property".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-89" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[89]  Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke's classical liberalism.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-90" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[90]  Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-91" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[91]  an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-92" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[92]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document—an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-93" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[93]  In contrast, historian Dennis J. Mahoney argues that the Declaration is not a legal document at all, but a philosophical document influenced by Emerich de Vattel, Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, andSamuel Pufendorf.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-94" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[94]  Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration is a document of international law. According to Armitage, the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel's The Law of Nations, a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-95" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[95]  Armitage writes that because "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood", the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States". If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries had first to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-96" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[96]  The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-97" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[97] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-98" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[98] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-99" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[99] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-100" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[100]

Signing
The signed copy of the Declaration. Now badly faded, because of poor preserving practices in the 19th century, is on display at the National Archives inWashington, D.C.Main article: Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty-six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-101" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[101]  But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-102" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[102]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">According to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department, under Secretary Philander C. Knox, the Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-U.S._State_Department_103-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[103]  On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-U.S._State_Department_103-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[103]  Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-U.S._State_Department_103-2" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[103]  One signer, Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire, who was seated in the Continental Congress in November, asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-U.S._State_Department_103-3" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[103] On July 4, 1776, Continental Congress President John Hancock's signature authenticated the United States Declaration of Independence.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Historians have generally accepted McKean's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-104" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[104]  In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-105" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[105]  According to Ritz, about thirty-four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-106" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[106]  Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-107" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[107]  Two future U.S. presidents, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, were among the signatories.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who, as President of Congress, presumably signed first.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-108" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[108]  Hancock's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-109" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[109]  A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles." Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that!"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-110" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[110]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Various legends about the signing of the Declaration emerged years later, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together", and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately." The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin's death.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-111" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[111]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The Syng inkstand, used at the signing, was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.

Publication and reaction
Johannes Adam Simon Oertel's painting Pulling Down the Statue of King George III, N.Y.C., ca. 1859, depicts citizens destroying a statue of King George after the Declaration was read in New York City on July 9, 1776.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, the Declaration was read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers across the thirteen states. The first official public reading of the document was by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall on July 8; public readings also took place on that day in Trenton, New Jersey, and Easton, Pennsylvania.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maier156_112-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[112]  A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-113" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[113]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-114" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[114]  Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maier156_112-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[112]  After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-115" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[115] William Whipple, signer of the Declaration of Independence, freed his slave believing he could not fight for liberty and own a slave.<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-116" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[116]  It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-117" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[117]  It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student 'Vendek' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes. Though the Spanish-American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, it was widely transmitted and translated, by the Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by the Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by the Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte and by the New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-scholar.harvard.edu_118-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[118]  TheNorth Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response, which was entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-119" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[119]  British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" to African Americans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-120" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[120]  Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-121" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[121] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-122" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[122]  These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-123" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[123]  Lind's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights, written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument which he would repeat during the French Revolution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-124" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[124]  Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal" without freeing their own slaves.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-125" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[125]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave, Prince Whipple, because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-126" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[126]  All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.

History of the documents
Main article: Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The official copy was the one printed on July 4, 1776 under Jefferson's supervision. It was sent to the states and the Army, and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy" (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note the opening lines of the two version differ.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-journals.psu.edu_78-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[78]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-archives_127-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[127]  Because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century, a facsimile made in 1823, rather than the original, has become the basis of most modern reproductions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-archives_127-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[127]  In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration, along with the United States Constitution, was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-128" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[128]  In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives, and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-129" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[129] The Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom in the National Archives building<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Although the document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-130" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[130]  In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that, unlike the Dunlap broadside, listed the signers of the Declaration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-archives_127-2" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[127] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Dube_131-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[131]  Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Dube_131-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[131]  A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Dube_131-2" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[131]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four-page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Boyd.2C_Lost_Original.2C_446_132-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[132]  How many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members, is unknown. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson's handwriting.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-133" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[133]  Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft, with slight variations, to friends.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps other members of the drafting committee,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Boyd.2C_Lost_Original.2C_446_132-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[132]  who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable" to "We hold these truths to be self-evident".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-134" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[134]  Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Boyd.2C_Lost_Original.2C_446_132-2" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[132]  The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost, and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-135" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[135]  or destroyed during the debates in accordance withCongress's secrecy rule.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-136" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[136]

Legacy
<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States, the Declaration was initially neglected in the years immediately following the American Revolution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-137" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[137]  Early celebrations of Independence Day, like early histories of the Revolution, largely ignored the Declaration. Although the act of declaring independence was considered important, the text announcing that act attracted little attention.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-138" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[138]  The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-139" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[139]  George Mason's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson's words.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-140" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[140]  "In none of these documents", wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men's minds as a classic statement of American political principles."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maier167_141-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[141]

Influence in other countries
<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Maier167_141-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[141]  but were also interested in the new American state constitutions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-142" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[142]  The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-143" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[143]  Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend, Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason's Virginia Declaration of Rights.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-144" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[144] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-145" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[145]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-146" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[146]  others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence(1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860–61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-147" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[147]  These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-148" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[148]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Some other countries that used the Declaration as inspiration or directly copied sections from it is the Haitian declaration of 1 January 1804 from the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830,Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well, however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal" and "the consent of the governed".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-scholar.harvard.edu_118-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[118] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-149" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[149] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-150" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[150] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-151" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[151]  The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal" and "consent of the governed".

Revival of interest
<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">In the United States, interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of America's first political parties.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-152" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[152]  Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew, or cared, who wrote the Declaration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-153" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[153]  But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-154" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[154]  Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing that act.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-155" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[155]  But this view, like the Federalist Party, would fade away, and before long the act of declaring independence would become synonymous with the document. John Trumbull's famous painting is often identified as a depiction of the signing of the Declaration, but it actually shows the drafting committee presenting its work to the Congress.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-156" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:9.89632px;">[156] <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-157" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[157]  In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-158" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[158]  The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-159" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[159]  Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-160" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[160]  giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-161" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[161]  In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document would be published for the first time.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776—the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George—were no longer relevant. But the second paragraph, with its talk of self-evident truths and unalienable rights, were applicable long after the war had ended.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-162" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[162]  Because the Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, advocates of marginalized groups turned to the Declaration for support.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-163" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[163]  Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-164" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[164]  In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention, a meeting of women's rights advocates, declared that "all men and women are created equal".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-165" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[165]

Slavery and the Declaration
Further information: Slavery in the colonial United States<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal" and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, although Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Britain's role in the slave trade, this was deleted from the final version.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MaierAmerican_77-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[77]  Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder having owned hundreds of slaves.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-166" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[166] Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-167" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[167]  In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt-Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WB287_168-0" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[168]  Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks" of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence" as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land," wrote Garrison, "we will not despair."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-169" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[169]  For radical abolitionists like Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution: Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-170" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[170]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-171" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[171]  Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-172" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[172]  Proslavery Congressmen, led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina, argued that since the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution, it had no relevance to the question.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-173" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[173]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration's assertion that "all men are created equal" was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-174" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[174]  During the debate over the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that "all men are created equal", rather than a "self-evident truth", was a "self-evident lie".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-175" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[175]  Opponents of the Kansas–Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-176" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[176]

Lincoln and the Declaration
Congressman Abraham Lincoln Shepherd, 1845–1846<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The Declaration's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little-known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-177" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[177]  Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-McPherson126_9-1" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[9]  For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas-Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said: <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self-government. ... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust. Let us repurify it. ... Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it. ... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-178" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[178] <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that "all men are created equal" in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-179" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[179]  Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard for which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere", he said.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-180" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[180]  During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on 15 October 1858 Lincoln said about the declaration: <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal — equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-181" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[181] <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">According to Pauline Maier, Douglas's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln's hands", wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document" with "a set of goals to be realized over time".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-182" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[182] <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:inherit;">[T]here is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled to all the natural rights enumerated in the Declaration of Independence, the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. I hold that he is as much entitled to these as the white man. Abraham Lincoln, 1858<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-183" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:9.856px;">[183] <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-184" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[184]  Although the Constitution did not use the word "equality", Lincoln believed that "all men are created equal" remained a part of the nation's founding principles.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-185" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[185]  He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago [i.e. in 1776] our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">Lincoln's view of the Declaration as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution became influential. "For most people now," wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-186" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[186]  Admirers of Lincoln, such as Harry V. Jaffa, praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government, and violated states' rights, by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-187" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[187] Elizabeth Cady Stanton and her two sons. 1848.===Women's suffrage and the Declaration=== <p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">In July 1848, the first Woman's Rights Convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments", patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal" and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-188" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[188] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-189" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:isolate;font-size:11.2px;">[189]

Legacy
Presentation of the Declaration depicted on aUnited States postal issueof 1869<p style="margin-top:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award-winning musical play 1776, and the 1972 movie of the same name, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The engrossed copy of the Declaration is central to the 2004 Hollywood film National Treasure, in which the main character steals the document because he believes it has secret clues to a treasure hidden by some of the Founding Fathers.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The Declaration is featured in The Probability Broach (1980), an alternative history novel, when one word is added to the document, to read that governments "derive their just power from the unanimous consent of the governed".

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">In 1984 the Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence was dedicated in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residences and occupations.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;line-height:22.4px;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;font-size:14px;">The Declaration document is at risk in Honour Among Thieves (1993), a novel by Jeffrey Archer in which Saddam Hussein tries to steal the Declaration to burn it publicly on July 4. ==References== (2) Day, Thomas. Fragment of an original letter on the Slavery of the Negroes, written in the year 1776. ''London: Printed for John Stockdale (1784). Boston: Re-printed by Garrison and Knapp, at the office of "The Liberator" (1831)''. p. 10. Retrieved February 26,  2014. If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. At: Internet Archive: The Johns Hopkins University Sheridan Libraries: James Birney Collection of Antislavery Pamphlets.
 * 1) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Becker, Declaration of Independence, 5.
 * 2) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  The thirteen colonies were: Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, Maryland,South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Jersey were formed by mergers of previous colonies.
 * 3) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  "Declaring Independence", Revolutionary War, Digital History, University of Houston. From Adams' notes: "Why will you not? You ought to do it." "I will not." "Why?" "Reasons enough." "What can be your reasons?" "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can." "Well," said Jefferson, "if you are decided, I will do as well as I can." "Very well. When you have drawn it up, we will have a meeting."
 * 4) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Boyd (1976), The Declaration of Independence: The Mystery of the Lost Original, pg. 438
 * 5) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "Did You Know...Independence Day Should Actually Be July 2?" (Press release). National Archives and Records Administration. June 1, 2005. Retrieved  July 4,  2012.
 * 6) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  The Declaration of Independence: A History, The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration
 * 7) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Stephen E. Lucas, "Justifying America: The Declaration of Independence as a Rhetorical Document", in Thomas W. Benson, ed., American Rhetoric: Context and Criticism, Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989, p. 85
 * 8) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Ellis, American Creation, 55–56.
 * 9) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  McPherson, Second American Revolution, 126.
 * 10) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  David Armitage, The Declaration of Independence: A Global History (Harvard University Press, 2007) pp. 103–4
 * 11) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hazelton, Declaration History, 19.
 * 12) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Christie and Labaree, Empire or Independence, 31.
 * 13) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 162.
 * 14) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 200–02.
 * 15) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 180–82.
 * 16) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 241.
 * 17) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 224–25.
 * 18) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 241–42. The writings in question include Wilson's Considerations on the Authority of Parliamentand Jefferson's A Summary View of the Rights of British America(both 1774), as well as Samuel Adams's 1768 Circular Letter.
 * 19) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 168; Ferling, Leap in the Dark, 123–24.
 * 20) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hazelton, Declaration History, 13; Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 318.
 * 21) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 318.
 * 22) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 25. The text of the 1775 king's speech is online, published by the American Memory project.
 * 23) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 25.
 * 24) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Rakove, Beginnings of National Politics, 88–90.
 * 25) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Christie and Labaree, Empire or Independence, 270; Maier,American Scripture, 31–32.
 * 26) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 667.
 * 27) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Rakove, Beginnings of National Politics, 89; Maier, American Scripture, 33.
 * 28) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 33–34.
 * 29) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hazelton, Declaration History, 209; Maier, American Scripture, 25–27.
 * 30) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Friedenwald, Interpretation, 67.
 * 31) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Friedenwald, Interpretation, 77.
 * 32) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 30.
 * 33) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 59.
 * 34) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 671; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 78.
 * 35) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 48, and Appendix A, which lists the state and local declarations.
 * 36) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 678–79.
 * 37) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 679; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 92–93.
 * 38) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 69–72, quote on 72.
 * 39) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 48. The modern scholarly consensus is that the best-known and earliest of the local declarations, the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence, allegedly adopted in May 1775 (a full year before other local declarations), is most likely inauthentic; Maier, American Scripture, 174.
 * 40) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  Jensen, Founding, 682.
 * 41) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 683.
 * 42) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 684; Maier, American Scripture, 37. For the full text of the May 10 resolve see the Journals of the Continental Congress.
 * 43) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 684.
 * 44) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Burnett, Continental Congress, 159. The text of Adams's letter is online.
 * 45) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 37; Jensen, Founding, 684. For the full text of the May 15 preamble see the Journals of the Continental Congress.
 * 46) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Rakove, National Politics, 96; Jensen, Founding, 684; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 94.
 * 47) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Rakove, National Politics, 97; Jensen, Founding, 685.
 * 48) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 38.
 * 49) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Boyd, Evolution, 18; Maier, American Scripture, 63. The text of the May 15 Virginia resolution is online at Yale Law School's Avalon Project.
 * 50) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jefferson, Thomas (4 July 1776). "Declaration of Independence. In Congress, July 4, 1776, a Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress Assembled". World Digital Library. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Retrieved  1 July  2013.
 * 51) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 41; Boyd, Evolution, 19.
 * 52) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 689–90; Maier, American Scripture, 42.
 * 53) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 689; Armitage, Global History, 33–34. The quote is from Jefferson's notes; Boyd, Papers of Jefferson, 1:311.
 * 54) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 42–43; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 106.
 * 55) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 691–92.
 * 56) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Friedenwald, Interpretation, 106–07; Jensen, Founding, 691.
 * 57) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 692.
 * 58) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 693.
 * 59) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 694.
 * 60) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 694–96; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 96; Maier, American Scripture, 68.
 * 61) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Friedenwald, Interpretation, 118; Jensen, Founding, 698.
 * 62) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Friedenwald, Interpretation, 119–20.
 * 63) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Dupont and Onuf, 3.
 * 64) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 97–105; Boyd, Evolution, 21.
 * 65) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Boyd, Evolution, 22.
 * 66) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 104.
 * 67) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Becker, Declaration of Independence, 4.
 * 68) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 701.
 * 69) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  John E. Ferling, Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution, Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513409-4. OCLC 468591593, pp. 131–137
 * 70) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Burnett, Continental Congress, 181.
 * 71) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 699.
 * 72) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Burnett, Continental Congress, 182; Jensen, Founding, 700.
 * 73) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 45.
 * 74) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Boyd, Evolution, 19.
 * 75) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jensen, Founding, 703–04.
 * 76) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 160–61.
 * 77) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  Maier, American Scripture, 146–50.
 * 78) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  Julian P. Boyd, "The Declaration of Independence: The Mystery of the Lost Original". Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100, number 4 (October 1976), page 456
 * 79) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">c <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">d  Lucas, Stephen E. "The Stylistic Artistry of the Declaration of Independence". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved  July 4,  2012.
 * 80) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "Index of Signers by State". ushistory.org – Independence Hall Association in Philadelphia. Retrieved  October 12,  2006.
 * 81) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "TO HENRY LEE — Thomas Jefferson The Works, vol. 12 (Correspondence and Papers 1816–1826; 1905)". The Online Library of Liberty. May 8, 1825. Retrieved  March 8,  2008.
 * 82) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Malone, Jefferson the Virginian, 221; Maier, American Scripture, 125–26.
 * 83) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 126–28.
 * 84) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 53–57.
 * 85) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier found no evidence that the Dutch Act of Abjuration served as a model for the Declaration and considers the argument "unpersuasive" (American Scripture, p. 264). Armitage discounts the influence of the Scottish and Dutch acts, and writes that neither was called "declarations of independence" until fairly recently (Global History, pp. 42–44). For the argument in favor of the influence of the Dutch act, see Stephen E. Lucas, "The 'Plakkaat van Verlatinge': A Neglected Model for the American Declaration of Independence", in Rosemarijn Hofte and Johanna C. Kardux, eds., Connecting Cultures: The Netherlands in Five Centuries of Transatlantic Exchange (Amsterdam, 1994), 189–207, and Barbara Wolff, "Was the Declaration of Independence Inspired by the Dutch?" University of Wisconsin Madison News, June 29, 1988,http://www.news.wisc.edu/3049 Accessed July 3, 2013
 * 86) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Boyd, Evolution, 16–17.
 * 87) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "The Three Greatest Men". Retrieved  June 13,  2009.Jefferson identified Bacon, Locke, and Newton as "the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception". Their works in the physical and moral sciences were instrumental in Jefferson's education and world view.
 * 88) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Becker, Declaration of Independence, 27.
 * 89) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Ray Forrest Harvey, Jean Jacques Burlamaqui: A Liberal Tradition in American Constitutionalism (Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1937), 120.
 * 90) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  A brief, online overview of the classical liberalism vs. republicanism debate is Alec Ewald, "The American Republic: 1760–1870" (2004). In a similar vein, historian Robert Middlekauff argues that the political ideas of the independence movement took their origins mainly from the "eighteenth-centurycommonwealthmen, the radical Whig ideology", which in turn drew on the political thought of John Milton, James Harrington, and John Locke. See Robert Middlekauff (2005), The Glorious Cause, pp. 3–6, 51–52, 136
 * 91) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Inventing America, especially chs. 11–13. Wills concludes (p. 315) that "the air of enlightened America was full of Hutcheson's politics, not Locke's".
 * 92) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hamowy, "Jefferson and the Scottish Enlightenment", argues that Wills gets much wrong (p. 523), that the Declaration seems to be influenced by Hutcheson because Hutcheson was, like Jefferson, influenced by Locke (pp. 508–09), and that Jefferson often wrote of Locke's influence, but never mentioned Hutcheson in any of his writings (p. 514). See also Kenneth S. Lynn, "Falsifying Jefferson", Commentary 66 (Oct. 1978), 66–71. Ralph Luker, in "Garry Wills and the New Debate Over the Declaration of Independence" (The Virginia Quarterly Review, Spring 1980, 244–61) agreed that Wills overstated Hutcheson's influence to provide a communitarian reading of the Declaration, but he also argued that Wills's critics similarly read their own views into the document.
 * 93) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  John Phillip Reid, "The Irrelevance of the Declaration", in Hendrik Hartog, ed., Law in the American Revolution and the Revolution in the Law (New York University Press, 1981), 46–89.
 * 94) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Mahoney, Declaration of Independence.
 * 95) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Benjamin Franklin to Charles F.W. Dumas, December 19, 1775, in The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Albert Henry Smyth (New York: 1970), 6:432.
 * 96) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 21, 38–40.
 * 97) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Gulf, C. & SFR Co. v. Ellis, 165 US 150 (1897): "While such declaration of principles may not have the force of organic law, or be made the basis of judicial decision as to the limits of right and duty.... it is always safe to read the letter of the Constitution in the spirit of the Declaration of Independence."
 * 98) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Gary. Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence, p. 25 (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002): "the Declaration is not a legal instrument, like the Constitution".
 * 99) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Cuomo, Mario. Why Lincoln Matters: Now More Than Ever, p. 137 (Harcourt Press 2004) (it "is not a law and therefore is not subjected to rigorous interpretation and enforcement").
 * 100) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Strang, Lee "Originalism's Subject Matter: Why the Declaration of Independence Is Not Part of the Constitution", Southern California Law Review, Vol. 89, 2015.
 * 101) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", 242–43.
 * 102) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hazelton, Declaration History, 299–302; Burnett, Continental Congress, 192.
 * 103) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">c <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">d  The U.S. State Department (1911), The Declaration of Independence, 1776, pp. 10, 11.
 * 104) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", 245–46; Hazelton, Declaration History, 208–19; Wills, Inventing America, 341.
 * 105) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Ritz, "Authentication", 179–200.
 * 106) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Ritz, "Authentication", 194.
 * 107) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hazelton, Declaration History, 208–19.
 * 108) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hazelton, Declaration History, 209.
 * 109) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Merriam-Webster online; Dictionary.com.
 * 110) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "TeachAmericanHistory.org: John Hancock"  (PDF) . Retrieved October 6,  2014.
 * 111) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Malone, Story of the Declaration, 91.
 * 112) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  Maier, American Scripture, 156.
 * 113) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 72.
 * 114) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 155.
 * 115) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 156–57.
 * 116) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 73.
 * 117) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "The Declaration of Independence in World Context". Retrieved  October 6,  2014.
 * 118) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  The Contagion of Sovereignty: Declarations of Independence since 1776
 * 119) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 75. Retrieved  October 6,  2014.
 * 120) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Jessup, John J. (September 20, 1943). "America and the Future". Life: 105. Retrieved  March 9,  2011.
 * 121) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hutchinson, Thomas (1776). Eicholz, Hans, ed. "Strictures upon the Declaration of the Congress at Philadelphia in a Letter to a Noble Lord, &c.". London: Liberty Fund. Retrieved November 7,  2012.
 * 122) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 74.
 * 123) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 155–56.
 * 124) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 79-80. Retrieved  October 6,  2014.
 * 125) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 76-77. Retrieved  October 6,  2014.
 * 126) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–1877 (1993), pp. 77–79, 81
 * 127) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">c  "The Declaration of Independence: A History". Charters of Freedom. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved  July 1,  2011.
 * 128) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Malone, Story of the Declaration, 263.
 * 129) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "Charters of Freedom Re-encasement Project". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved  July 1,  2011.
 * 130) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "Rare copy of United States Declaration of Independence found in Kew". The Daily Telegraph. July 3, 2009. Retrieved July 1,  2011.
 * 131) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">c  Ann Marie Dube (May 1996). "The Declaration of Independence". A Multitude of Amendments, Alterations and Additions: The Writing and Publicizing of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution of the United States. National Park Service. Retrieved  July 1,  2011.
 * 132) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">c  Boyd, "Lost Original", 446.
 * 133) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Boyd, Papers of Jefferson, 1:421.
 * 134) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Becker, Declaration of Independence, 142 note 1. Boyd (Papers of Jefferson, 1:427–28) casts doubt on Becker's belief that the change was made by Franklin.
 * 135) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Boyd, "Lost Original", 448–50. Boyd argued that if a document was signed on July 4—which he thought unlikely—it would have been the Fair Copy, and probably would have been signed only by Hancock and Thomson.
 * 136) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Ritz, "From the Here", speculates that the Fair Copy was immediately sent to the printer so that copies could be made for each member of Congress to consult during the debate. All of these copies were then destroyed, theorizes Ritz, to preserve secrecy.
 * 137) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 87–88; Maier, American Scripture, 162, 168–69.
 * 138) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 178–79; Maier, American Scripture, 160.
 * 139) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 92.
 * 140) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 90; Maier, American Scripture, 165–67.
 * 141) ^ <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up to: <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">a <sup style="line-height:1;font-size:10.08px;">b  Maier, American Scripture, 167.
 * 142) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 82.
 * 143) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Georges Lefebvre (2005). The Coming of the French Revolution. Princeton UP. p. 212.
 * 144) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  George Athan Billias, ed. (2009). American Constitutionalism Heard Round the World, 1776-1989: A Global Perspective. NYU Press. p. 92.
 * 145) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Susan Dunn, Sister Revolutions: French Lightning, American Light (1999) pp 143-45
 * 146) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 113.
 * 147) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 120–35.
 * 148) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, Global History, 104, 113.
 * 149) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Palley, Claire (1966). The Constitutional History and Law of Southern Rhodesia 1888–1965, with Special Reference to Imperial Control (First ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 750.OCLC 406157.
 * 150) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Hillier, Tim (1998). Sourcebook on Public International Law(First ed.). London & Sydney: Cavendish Publishing. p. 207.ISBN 1-85941-050-2.
 * 151) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Gowlland-Debbas, Vera (1990). Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations action in the question of Southern Rhodesia (First ed.). Leiden and New York: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 71. ISBN 0-7923-0811-5.
 * 152) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 172.
 * 153) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 172, 179.
 * 154) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 179; Maier, American Scripture, 168–71.
 * 155) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 180–84; Maier, American Scripture, 171.
 * 156) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Inventing America, 348.
 * 157) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Detweiler, "Changing Reputation", 571–72; Maier, American Scripture, 175–78.
 * 158) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Detweiler, "Changing Reputation", 572; Maier, American Scripture, 175.
 * 159) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Detweiler, "Changing Reputation", 572; Maier, American Scripture, 175–76; Wills, Inventing America, 324. See also John C. Fitzpatrick, Spirit of the Revolution (Boston 1924).
 * 160) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 176.
 * 161) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Inventing America, 90.
 * 162) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Armitage, "Global History", 93.
 * 163) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 196–97.
 * 164) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 197. See also Philip S. Foner, ed.,We, the Other People: Alternative Declarations of Independence by Labor Groups, Farmers, Woman's Rights Advocates, Socialists, and Blacks, 1829–1975 (Urbana 1976).
 * 165) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 197; Armitage, Global History, 95.
 * 166) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Cohen (1969), Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery
 * 167) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  (1) Armitage, Global History, 77.
 * 1) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan, 287.
 * 2) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Mayer, All on Fire, 53, 115.
 * 3) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 198–99.
 * 4) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Detweiler, "Congressional Debate", 598.
 * 5) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Detweiler, "Congressional Debate", 604.
 * 6) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Detweiler, "Congressional Debate", 605.
 * 7) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 199; Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 246.
 * 8) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 200.
 * 9) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 200–01.
 * 10) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 201–02.
 * 11) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  McPherson, Second American Revolution, 126–27.
 * 12) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 204.
 * 13) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 204–05.
 * 14) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865): Political Debates Between Lincoln and Douglas 1897, p. 415.". Bartleby. Retrieved January 26,  2013.
 * 15) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Maier, American Scripture, 207.
 * 16) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 100.
 * 17) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 129–31.
 * 18) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 145.
 * 19) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 147.
 * 20) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 39, 145–46. See also Harry V. Jaffa, Crisis of the House Divided (1959) and A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War(2000); Willmoore Kendall and George W. Carey, The Basic Symbols of the American Political Tradition (1970); and M.E. Bradford, "The Heresy of Equality: A Reply to Harry Jaffa" (1976), reprinted in A Better Guide than Reason (1979) andModern Age, the First Twenty-five Years (1988).
 * 21) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  Norton, et al (2010), p. 301.
 * 22) <span class="cite-accessibility-label" style="-webkit-user-select:none;top:-99999px;clip:rect(1px1px1px1px);overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important;height:1px!important;width:1px!important;">Jump up ^  "Modern History Sourcebook: Seneca Falls: The Declaration of Sentiments, 1848". Retrieved  October 6,  2014.